Sunnis and Shias

Light Green--Sunnis; Dark Green- Shias  What are the differences between Sunnis and Shias?    Muslims are split into two main branches, the Sunnis and Shias. The split originates in a dispute soon after the death of the Prophet Muhammad over who should lead the Muslims. The great majority of Muslims are Sunnis - estimates suggest the figure is somewhere between 85% and 90%. The two communities share fundamental beliefs - the "oneness" of Allah, that Muhammad was the last prophet, prayer, fasting and the pilgrimage to Mecca for example. But there are differences in doctrine, ritual, law, theology and religious organisation.  They also often seem to be in competition.  The Iranian revolution of 1979 launched a radical Shia Islamist agenda that laid down a theological and ideological challenge to conservative Sunni regimes, particularly in the Gulf. In countries with large Shia communities, Shias often make up the poorest sections of society and see themselves as oppressed and discriminated against.  In many countries the two communities live separate lives. However, in Iraq intermarriage between Sunnis and Shia was common until recently.  In Lebanon, Shias have gained widespread respect and a strong political voice due to the political and military activities of Hezbollah.  Some conservative Sunni doctrines preach hatred of Shias. Pakistan has a history of Shia-Sunni bloodshed dating back to the 1980s.  Who are the Sunnis? Sunni Muslims regard themselves as the orthodox and traditionalist branch of Islam. The word Sunni comes from "Ahl al-Sunna", the people of the tradition. The tradition in this case refers to practices based on precedent or reports of the actions of the Prophet Muhammad and those close to him. Sunnis venerate all the prophets mentioned in the Koran, but particularly Muhammad as the final prophet. All subsequent Muslim leaders are seen as temporal figures. In contrast to Shias, Sunni religious teachers and leaders have historically come under state control. The Sunni tradition also emphasises a codified system of Islamic law and adherence to four schools of law.  Who are the Shias? In early Islamic history the Shia were a political faction - literally "Shiat Ali" or the party of Ali. The Shia claimed the right of Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, and his descendants to lead the Islamic community. Ali was killed in a power struggle over who should be caliph, leader of the Muslims. His sons also struggled to capture the caliphate - Hussein died on the battlefield opposing a subsequent caliph and Hassan is believed to have been poisoned. These events gave rise to the Shia cult of martyrdom and the rituals of grieving. There is a distinctive messianic element to the faith and Shias have a hierarchy of clerics who practise independent and ongoing interpretation of Islamic texts. Estimates of the number of Shia range from 120 to 170 million, roughly one-tenth of all Muslims. Shia Muslims are in the majority in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain and, according to some estimates, Yemen. There are large Shia communities in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, India, Kuwait, Lebanon, Pakistan, Qatar, Syria, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE.

The total ABCD of Wheat !!!

What Is Durum Wheat?

Durum wheat is a type of wheat that is high in protein, gluten, and generally very firm and strong. Kernels of durum wheat are usually large and amber colored. This wheat is most commonly used for making pasta rather than for baking because of its denseness and cooking quality. Pasta made from durum wheat is typically yellow in color because of the wheat's yellow endosperm. The endosperm of wheat is found in the kernel and is usually full of niacin, iron, starch, and protein.

What Are the Benefits of Wheat Germ?

The benefits of wheat germ are numerous, one of them being that this high fiber, high protein part of wheat is one the tastier health foods. It can easily be incorporated into lots of recipes or added to things like cereals or smoothies to include extra nutrition. Unless people are intolerant to wheat, most will find this portion of the wheat kernel easy to digest, though it may be a good idea to start slow in adding it to foods because of its relatively high fiber content. 

What Are Wheat Berries?

 Wheat berries are whole wheat kernels which have had their husks removed. Like other whole grains, they provide a great deal of valuable nutrition including vitamins, minerals, and fiber, and they are often touted as a good inclusion in a healthy diet. Health food stores and some supermarkets carry wheat berries in a variety of packagings, and sometimes finished food products made with wheat berries such as mixed grain salads are also available at markets.

What is a Wheat Allergy?

A wheat allergy is a type of food allergy characterized by adverse reactions to the consumption of wheat. In addition to causing problems when wheat is eaten, wheat allergies may also result in skin reactions in response to contact with wheat, and in respiratory problems after inhaling wheat pollen and wheat dust. Along with soy, dairy, egg, shellfish, tree nut, peanut, and fish allergies, wheat allergies are very widespread around the world, with people from a wide variety of backgrounds experiencing wheat allergies and sensitivity to wheat.

What is the Difference Between Whole Grain and Whole Wheat? 

When it comes to the differences between whole grain products and whole wheat products, there may be some confusion among consumers. While there are many similarities between whole grain products and whole wheat products, there are a few differences that could be very important. Here are some examples.
One of the main differences between whole wheat and whole grain is the process that is used to prepare the grain flour. With whole-wheat flour, the grain has gone through a refining process that has removed some of the nutritional value from the end product. By contrast, whole-grain flour does not go through this refining process, and thus maintains the natural level of nutrients. 

What is Gluten Flour?

There are several types of gluten flour, most derived from wheat. Gluten is a protein found abundantly in the endosperm of wheat that adds stickiness and sponginess to dough. When people cook with other whole grains, they may not have adequate gluten, and might need to use a bit of pure gluten in order to make breads and other baked goods lighter. There are a few ways to add extra gluten to dough, most of them employing some type of gluten flour to accomplish this. 

What is Kamut® Grain?

Kamut® grain is an ancient grain, and a close relative to durum wheat. It is growing in popularity as an alternative to traditional wheat sources because it is considered nutritionally superior to many other forms of wheat. Research suggests that Kamut® grain may first have been grown in either Egypt or Asia.
When it was first grown in the US, it had no trademark, and was grown mainly as a novelty grain by one farmer in Montana, who got samples of the grain from his son, a WWII airman. The wheat was dubbed King Tut’s grain because of the suggestion of its ancient uses and possible origins. It wasn’t until the 1970s that any farmers thought to grow the wheat in a commercial manner, and there was only one remaining sample of the Montana farmer’s harvest, grown in the 1940s, with which to work. 

The anatomy of a grain of wheat

A whole grain is mostly made up of 3 parts. The bran, the germ, and the endosperm. Check out this cool picture.
As you can see from the picture. The endosperm makes up most of the kernal, the bran comes next and the germ makes up the least amount. Manufacturers remove the bran and germ when they make refined bread flour (white flour). Which is not good at all.

The bran is the outside layer of the grain and it is a rich source of many vitamins and minerals like magnesium, riboflavin, thiamin, phosphorus, niacin, iron and zinc. Almost all of the fiber within the grain comes from the bran.

The germ is the part of the grain from which a new plant would sprout if you were to plant it. It is a concentrated source of vitamin E, magnesium, riboflavin, thiamin, phosphorus, niacin, iron and zinc. The germ also contains some fat and protein.

The endosperm has very small amounts of vitamins, not nearly close to what the bran and germ have.

Buckwheat - is it wheat or what?

Don’t let the word ‘wheat’ in it’s name confuse you. Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) looks like a grain and tastes like a grain but isn't a grain at all. Buckwheat is thought of as a cereal, but is actually an herb of the buckwheat family, Polygonaceae, a relative of the rhubarb. Buckwheat is also gluten free, which makes it an ideal food for those allergic or sensitive to the gluten in found wheat and other true grains. After being removed from the husk, the triangular seeds are used to make flour.

Landmark varieties of wheat in India and their yielding ability

Variety	Year of release	Yield potential (Q/ha)
S 227	1965	33.7
C 306	1965	36.0
Sonalika	1967	45.5
Kalyan Sona	1970	46.0
WL 711	1975	46.8
UP 262	1977	44.0
WH 147	1977	45.1
HD 2189	1979	45.7
HD 2009	1980	45.8
Lok 1	1981	45.4
HUW 234	1984	35.3
HD 2285	1985	42.5
HD 2329	1985	47.1
UP 2338	1990	51.3
WH 542	1992	61.5
Raj 3765	1995	48.9
PBW 343	1995	63.0
HD 2687	1999	62.9
HD 2733	2001	61.5
GW 322	2002	61.0
DBW 17	2006	64.1

• The three species of wheat namely, Triticum aestivum (bread wheat), Triticum durum (macaroni wheat) and Triticum dicoccum (Emmer or Khapli) grown on commercial basis in the Indian subcontinent from pre-historic times are of spring type. 
• five important varieties namely PV 18, Kalyan Sona, Sonalika, Chhoti Lerma and Safed Lerma thereby ushering in the Green Revolution in India.

	Released by		Total
	CVRC	SVRC
Bread wheat	199	92	291
Durum wheat	27	19	46
Dicoccum wheat	04	-	04
Triticale	02	01	03
Total	232	112	344

CVRC –Central variety release committee, SVRC – State variety release committee

 

Airports Authority of India (AAI)

Shri V.P. Agrawal ---Chairman

The Airports Authority of India (AAI) was formed on 1st April 1995 by merging the International Airports Authority of India and the National Airports Authority with a view to accelerate the integrated development, expansion and modernization of the operational, terminal and cargo facilities at the airports in the country conforming to international standards. Functions of AAI The functions of AAI are as follows: Design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and domestic airports and civil enclaves. Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted by ICAO. Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals. Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and domestic airports. Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the passenger terminals at airports. Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons, Taxiway etc. Provision of visual aids. Provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar etc.

Quiz time

1) Which of the following Saint known as "Mahboob-ae-Dilli"

Ans. Nizammuddin Aulia

2) The Coin "Rupia" was first issued by:

Ans. Akbar

3) How many Central universities are there in India?

Ans.17

4)who was the first European to translate the Bhagwat Gita into English?

Ans. Charles Wilkins

5)Tuzuk-i-baburi was a autabiography written by babur in which language

Ans. Turkish

6) Which mughal emperor was also known as Qalandar?

Ans. babur

7) In 2003, Indian Railways Has completed?

Ans. 150 Years.

8)Which Indian Bank has the highest branches abroad?

Ans. SBI

9) The first Premature dissolution at the lok sabha took place in the year?

Ans. 1970

10) Tasleema's Nasreen's Autobiography?

Ans. Dwekhandita

11) The Office of District collector was created by?

Ans. Warren Hastings

12) what is the national sport of Greece?

Ans. Soccer

13) Which indian hockey player has a road named after him in germany?

Ans. Roop singh

14) In which year was men's hockey included in the Olympics?

Ans. 1924

15) Who gave Kapil Dev the nickname "Harayana Hurricane"?

Ans. Guinness Book of World Records.

16) Which cricketer, after his retirement from the game, served as India's High Commissioner in Australia?

Ans. K. S. Duleepsinghji

17) Who was the only cricketer to feature on a currency note of his country?

Ans. Sir Frank Worrell

18) In the history of Indian Cricket what 'first' does Faroukh Engineer have to his credit?

Ans. He was the first Indian to play County cricket ( for Lancashire in 1968)

19) Who was the only player dismissed for duck in the 1983 World Cup cricket final?

Ans. Kirti Azad (India)

20) Who was the first Hindu to play for the Pakistan national cricket team?

Ans. Anil Dalpat (wicket-keeper)

21) Which Australian cricketer, is nicknamed "Herby"?

Ans. Allan Border.

22) Who scored 99, 98 and 97 in three successive Test innings?

Ans. Clem Hill (Australia), 1902,

23) What is the importance of 14 Dec 1960 in Sports?

Ans. For the first time in cricket history a Test match was tied.

24) Who was the first victim of Kapil Dev in One day Internationals?

Ans. Imran Khan of Pakistan (Quetta October 1, 1978 his first match)

25) Who claimed the first wicket in Test cricket?

Ans. Allen Hill of England

26) "She was initially named Jeevan by her father, but later changed the name. By what name is this singer better known now? "

Ans. Norah Jones

27) Which former Miss India created history by deciding not to take part in the Miss Universe competition?

Ans. Nalini Vishwanathan 

28) Which is the youngest and oldest of the new world religions?

Ans. Sikhism  and Hinduism

29) In the 1980 film Kalyug which modern day actress played the role of Rekha's son?

Ans. Urmila Matondkar 

30) Which is the national animal of Nepal?

Ans. Cow 

31) In which Indian state would you find the largest church of Asia?

Ans. Goa 

32) The country Suriname is in which continent?

Ans. South America 

33) Where was the Durand Cup football tournament first played?

Ans. Shimla 

34) JPY is the currency code of which country?

Ans. Japan

35) Who was the captain of India in Sachin Tendulkar's debut Test?

Ans. Krishnamachari Srikkanth 

36) Which planet was discovered by William Herschel in 1781?

Ans. Uranus 

37) Which country is the world's largest producer of wheat?

Ans. China 

38) How do we better know a pugilist?

Ans. Boxer 

39) Who wrote the poem 'Venus and Adonis'?

Ans. William Shakespeare 

40) How is Sampooran Singh better known?

Ans. Gulzar

41) A.S Dilip Kumar is the original name of which famous music director?

Ans. A.R Rahman

42) Which company was founded in 1924 by a former cash register salesman Thomas Watson?

Ans. IBM

43) Which Indian politician wrote 'Flight to Parliament'?

Ans. Rajesh Pilot

44) Who among these was the first to climb Mt. Everest without oxygen?

Ans. Phu Dorjee 

45) "In computers, which term is used to refer to a collection of databases?"

Ans. Databank

46) What type of a creature is a mamba?

Ans. A snake 

47) In which of these lakes are the Honeymoon Island and the Breakfast Island situated?

Ans. Chilka Lake 

48) Which Indian President received the Templeton Prize in 1975?

Ans. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 

49) Which was the first Indian film to be nominated for the Oscar?

Ans. Mother India

50) Holi is celebrated in the month of ________ .

Ans. Phalguna

51) Which city is the headquarters of the SAARC?

Ans. Kathmandu 

52) Which U.S president won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906?

Ans Theodore Roosevelt 

53) Which animal is given or lent to other countries by the Chinese government as a mark of friendship?

Ans.Panda

54) What is the more popular name of the Alsatian breed of dogs?

Ans. German Shepherd 

55) Which is used to refer to data transfer rates in modem?

Ans. Cps

56) On which island were the extinct bird dodo found?

Ans. Mauritius 

57) "Sourav Ganguly, Virender Sehwag, Pravin Amre" what have in common ?

Ans. Century on Test debut 

58) "In the English translation of Rabindranath Tagore's 'Gitanjali', which famous poet wrote the introduction? "

Ans. W.B. Yeats 

59) 'Tarkash' is a collection of Urdu poetry by which famous lyricist?

Ans. Javed Akhtar

60) Which former US president devised the name 'United Nations'?

Ans. Franklin D. Roosevelt 

61) Which Indian won a Grammy award in the 2002 Grammy Awards?

Ans. Pandit Ravi Shankar

62) Aristotle was the teacher of which famous emperor?

Ans. Alexander the Great 

63) "In 1980, the Indian government issued a stamp to honour which hockey legend?"

Ans. Dhyan Chand

64) Which of these actors played a negative role in Steven Spielberg's 'Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'?

Ans. Amrish Puri 

65) Who is the only cricketer to have played Test cricket for both England and India?

Ans. Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi 

66) How is Badruddin Jamaluddin Kazi better known?

Ans Johnny Walker 

67) Which of these games is also called 'Ping-Pong'?

Ans. Table tennis 

68) Who has won the Nobel Prize twice?

Ans. Marie Curie

69) Who played the role of the young Raj Kapoor in the film 'Awara'?

Ans. Shashi Kapoor 

70) Which of these computer languages was developed from an earlier language BCPL?

Ans. C

71) Which country was ruled by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk?

Ans. Turkey 

72) By what name is the software program Multiplan now known?

Ans. MS Excel 

73) By what name is actor R.K. Tuli better known?

Ans. Rajendra Kumar

74) "In 1640, which city was founded by Francis Day ?"

Ans. Madras

75) "In computers, what is the full form of OMR?"

Ans. Optical Mark Reading

76)  Which famous director is the nephew of Dev Anand?

Ans. Shekhar Kapur

77) "In computers, which of these terms is used to refer to a temporary memory for data?"

Ans. Buffer

78) Who used the screen name 'Baby Rani' as a child actress?

Ans. Nargis

79) Who was the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate ?

Ans. Ibrahim Lodi

80) Who was the first Asian to swim across the English Channel?

Ans. Mihir Sen 

81) Who was the first Indian to participate in the Wimbledon tennis tournament?

Ans. Sardar Nihal Singh 

82) Which is the most used metal in the world?

Ans. Iron 

83) Who was the first Roman Catholic president of USA?

Ans. John F. Kennedy 

84) Name the first artificial satellite launched by man.

Ans. Sputnik 1

85) "In Germany, who among these was known as Kaiser?"

ans. Emperor 

86)  Which of these cities is both in Europe and Asia?

Istanbul 

87) Which is the longest river in Asia?

Yangtze

88) Which  Indian actresses acted in the film 'City of Joy'?

ans. Shabana Azmi 

89) Which game was once known as battledore?

Ans. Badminton

90) In which continent is the Gibson Desert?

Ans. Australia

91) Which is the hardest naturally occurring substance known to man?

Ans. Diamond 

92) What was the name of the first personal computer?

Ans. Altair

93) Which planet was discovered by the American astronomer Clyde W.Tombaugh?

Ans. Pluto  

94) "Which of these elements was discovered by Pierre Curie, Marie Curie and G. Bemont?"

ans. Radium

95) What do we call a device for connecting computer network that has the facilities of both a bridge and a router?

Ans. Brouter 

96) After which Prime Minister was Connaught Place renamed?

Ans. Rajiv Gandhi

97) Which hill station of India became an autonomous state in 1970?

Ans. Meghalaya

98) Which city became the capital of Punjab immediately after Independence?

Ans. Shimla

99) Who was given the title of 'Kavi Priya' by Akbar?

Ans. Birbal

100) Which term is used to describe a computer having the characteristics of both digital and analog computers?

Ans. Hybrid computer 

Information technology (Computer Awareness)

Concepts of Information Processing

Introduction

People have always needed to count. Earlier they counted with their fingers and probably through scratch markings on trees or bones or on the walls of their caves. People are now able to solve very sophisticated problems, and increasingly so with the aid of computers.

Today we use computers in virtually every environment, even in areas unconnected with number manipulation.

What is Data ?

Data is a collection of facts, figures, statistics which can be processed to produce meaningful information.

What is Processing ?

Processing is the manipulation of the letters, numbers of graphic symbols that constitute data. Data is collected, captured, shifted, rearranged, sorted in sequence, stored, retrieved, formatted and sent to various persons who need the information

Processing includes -
Calculation : addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Comparison : equal to, greater than, less than, zero, positive, negative
Decision-making : branching to a different path depending on a condition
Logic : the sequence or flow of step to be followed to get the desired result

What is Information ?

Information is processed data. It refers to facts, figures or statistics that have meaning. Although data and infomation are technically different they are often used interchangeably.


What is a Computer ?

A computer is often understood to be a device that computes or calculates numbers. It can be defined as an electronic device with the ability to

1. Accept data supplied by the user
2. Input, store and execute instructions
3. Perform mathemtical and logical operations
4. Output results according to user requirements

Functional Components of a Computer

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The hardware of any computer system can be broadly classified into the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the peripherals.

The heart of the computer is called the CPU (Central Processing Unit) or processor. The CPU performs :

Arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Logical operations: logical comparisons
Input - output operations : accepting data to be processed, generating the output or results of processing
Internal data movements : moving data between various parts of storage
Data manipulation : accepting data, sorting it, processing it, generating the required information

To perform these various operations the CPU has various components

1. Arithemetic-logic unit (ALU)
2. Control Unit (CU)
3. Memory Unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs the actual calculations (add, subtract, divide, multiply) and comparison (greater than, lesser than, equal to, positive, negative, zero).

Control Unit (CU) coordinates the operations of the hardware. It also coordinates the flow and execution of data and instructions that are fed into the memory or main storage via the CPU. The CU functions in a fetch-execute cycle. It fetches the instructions and data from the memory unit, decodes them and sends them to the Arithmetic Logic unit (ALU). The output from the ALU is fetched by the control unit and sent to various parts of the computer.

Memory unit or Main store hold data instructions (that are being interpreted and executed), intermediate results and final results ready for output. The data and instructions are passed from the main store into ALU, or to and from the storage devices under the control of the CU. All instructions or data are stored in the memory unit before being used by the ALU, or the CU. The main store is divided into a number of storage locations. These locations can be accessed by a unique number or address.

Within the CPU are a number of high speed, special purpose memory units called registers. These registers carry out critical functions in the execution of programs. A computer has four basic types of registers:

1. accumulator register (ACC)
2. store operand register (SOR)
3. control register (CR)
4. instruction address register (IAR)

Data Storage Devices

RAM

Typically semiconductor elements are used in primary storage sections or main memory. Semiconductor storage elements are small integrated circuits. The storage cell circuits and the support circuitry needed for reading and writing data are packaged on chips of silicon. Chips that use metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) technology are usually used in the primary storage section. The components are called random access memory (RAM) chips. It is possible to read from and write to any location within RAM by specifying its location or address. New data can be written onto any location, however, while doing so the previous existing data is erased.

RAM chips may be classified as :

1. dynamic
2. static

Dynamic RAM chips - The storage cell circuits contain

a transistor (functions like mechanical on-off light switch) a capacitor used to store an electric charge

Depending on the switching action of the transistor, the capacitor may have no charge (0 bit) or hold a charge.(1 bit). The charge on the capacitor must be periodically refreshed or recharged. I the event of power loss dynamic RAM loses its contents. It is thus called volatile storage.

Static RAM chips - are also volatile storage devices. However, as long as they are supplied with power, they do not require special regenerator circuits to retain the stored data. More transistors and other devices are needed to store a bit in static RAM. These chips are more complicated than dynamic RAMs. Static RAMs are used in specialised applications. Dynamic RAMs are typically used on the primary storage section.

ROM

There are certain essential functions that the computer must perform when it is switched on (e.g. establishing connections within the various components of the computer and its peripherals). These low level or machine level functions are carried out through a series of programs or microprograms. These microprograms are stored on chips. These Read Only Chips (ROM) contain data which can be read randomly when required but cannot be written onto.

Data is hardwired onto these chips at the time of manufacture. They cannot be changed by the user.

While both RAM and ROM are storage devices and can be accessed randomly, they differ in that data can be written onto RAM while ROM does not permit the user to write onto it.

ROM retains the data in it even in the absence of power and is thus non-volatile storage.

PROM

Short for programmable read-only memory, a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever. Unlike RAM, PROMs retain their contents when the computer is turned off.

The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner. The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM.

EPROM

An EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. Once it is erased, it can be reprogrammed.

EEPROM

EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. EEPROM data cannot be selectively rewritten; the entire chip must be erased and rewritten to update its contents.

While Random Access Memory (RAM) loses its data every time you power down your computer, EEPROM does not require a power source to maintain its data. For this reason EEPROM is commonly used by many BIOS chips to save system settings. They are especially useful in process control equipment, in which a real-time response is necessary, but when the software is being is continuously modified.

EEPROM is slower than RAM, but is perfectly fine for applications such as storing saved BIOS settings. EEPROM would not be chosen for applications with dynamic read/write requirements, as in the case of a digital camera, memory stick, or flash card. For these purposes a newer hybrid form of EEPROM is used called flash memory. Flash memory differs from EEPROM in that its data can be selectively rewritten. It can also be erased and rewritten in entire blocks, rather then one byte at a time. This makes it much faster than EEPROM.

Virtual Memory and Cache Memory

Virtual Memory

The size of the memory unit in the CPU is often inadequate, when large programs need to be stored or large amounts of data need to be processed. To overcome this drawback the technique of virtual memory is used. In this technique, which is implemented by hardware of software or both, the memory of the computer appears to have been increased. The program is divided by the software into pages or segments. Only that portion of the program and data that is being processed is kept in primary storage. Part of backing storage is treated as an extension of the main memory and information that is not required is swapped in and out of main store by the operating system. Thus the size of memory becomes equal to the size of primary storage plus the size of secondary storage begin used. Processing time is thus automatically increased.

Cache Memory

In an instruction cycle, the CPU accesses main memory to fetch the instruction. It also accesses memory one or more times to fetch operands or store results. The rate at which the CPU can execute an instruction is therefore, limited by the speed of main memory. To build main memory with the same technology required for CPU registers, so that memory cycle times are comparable to processor cycle times, is very expensive. As a solution a small, fast memory is provided between the CPU and main memory. This is called cache memory.

Types of Computer Files

The smallest unit of data is the data field. The data field consists of a group of related characters treated as a single entity.

A collection of related data items treated as a single unit is called a record.

Records are grouped to form files.

Types of files

The two broad categories of data files used in an information system are:

1. Master files
2. Transaction file

Master files are perpetual files i.e., apart from the time of their creation they are empty. Further, they maintain information that remains constant over a relatively long period of time. When the information changes the master file may be updated. The normal methods of updating are by adding, deleting or editing records in a file.

Transaction files are files in which data prior to the stage of processinig is recorded. The data in transaction records may be collected automatically or may be initially recorded or source documents and later converted to machine readable format.

A transaction file may be a temporary file, to be retained only as long as it is necessary to alter master file information. After the transaction file is processed it is usually re-initialised and further transactions are then recorded in it.

File Organisation

For organizing records efficiently in a computer file:

1. Data must be organised in a logical manner.
2. The file structure must allow quick access to data.
3. Allow for addition or deletion of data according to requirements.

File organisation may be :

1. Serial
2. Direct access
3. Indexed Sequential

In a serial file each data record is placed in turn the next available storage space. The record keys need not be any particular order, and there may be no relationship between the logical position of an item on the file and its physical position on the device. Records can only be accessed in the order in which they occur on the storage medium.

In sequential file organisation, records are held and accessed in a predetermined sequence of keys. Records can be organised in numerical alphabetical or chronological order.

Magnetic tape is a common medium for storing sequential and serial files. Files however may also be stored on disk, which allows convenient storage and faster access than on magnetic tape. Data however, must be retrieved sequentially.

Types of Processing Systems

There are variety of processing options available today.

1. Batch processing systems
2. On-line systems
3. Real-time systems
4. Distributed systems

Source---Freepedia

What was Watergate?

(1972–75), U.S. political scandal surrounding the revelation of illegal activities on the part of the incumbent Republican administration of President Richard M. Nixon during and after the 1972 presidential election campaign.

The matter was first brought to public attention by the arrest of five men who, on June 17, 1972, broke into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate, an office–apartment–hotel complex in Washington, D.C. Within a few days of their arrest at the Watergate, charges of burglary and wiretapping were brought against the five and against E. Howard Hunt, Jr., a former White House ...

"Watergate" is a general term used to describe a complex web of political scandals between 1972 and 1974.

The word refers to the Watergate Hotel in Washington D.C. In addition to the hotel, the Watergate complex houses many business offices. It was here that the office of the Democratic National Committee was burgled on June 17th, 1972.

The burglary and subsequent cover-up eventually led to moves to impeach President Richard Nixon. Nixon resigned the presidency on 8 August 1974.

"Watergate" is now an all-encompassing term used to refer to:

• political burglary
• bribery
• extortion
• phonetapping
• conspiracy
• obstruction of justice
• destruction of evidence
• tax fraud
• illegal use of government agencies such as the CIA and the FBI
• illegal campaign contributions
• use of public money for private purposes.

Most of all, "Watergate" is synonymous with abuse of power.

Source--
Britannica Encyclopedia

Elasticity

An important property of many structural materials is their ability to regain their original shape after a load is removed. These materials are called elastic.

Steel, glass and rubber are elastic; putty or modeling clay are not elastic. Each of these materials is elastic to varying degrees; steel and glass are both more elastic than rubber. The degree of elasticity, or "stiffness" of a material is called its Modulus of Elasticity (E). Given the modulus of elasticity, possible deformations can be calculated for any material and loading.

All materials are assumed to be elastic except when indicated otherwise in this course.

Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703), a great English scientist, experimented with springs, clocks and watches. During his investigation of the spring he discovered that in elastic materials, stress and strain are proportional. He first presented this in a lecture in 1678 and it is known today simply as Hooke's Law.

Hooke's Law applies as long as the material stress does not pass a certain point known as its proportional limit. This is the point at which the physical properties of the material actually change. Any time an elastic material is loaded between zero and the proportional limit, the stress and strain are directly proportional and if the load is released the material will regain its initial dimensions. If the stress is doubled the strain is doubled; if the stress is tripled the deformation is three times as great, etc.

The English physician and physicist Thomas Young (1773 - 1829) noted that if stress is proportional to strain, then for any given material, stress divided by strain would be a constant. This constant is known today as Young's Modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity.

The Modulus of Elasticity is represented by E = Stress / Strain.

This relationship is found as the slope of the curve of the stress-strain curve from initial loading to the proportional limit. A higher value of the modulus indicates a more brittle material (i.e. glass, ceramics). A very low value represents a ductile material (i.e. rubber).

Modulus of Elasticity

The values of the modulus of elasticity for structural materials have been determined by tests and are readily available in references such as the AISC manual. Some of the more common values are:

* Steel: E=29,000 KSI (sometimes rounded to 30,000 KSI)
* Aluminum: E=10,000 KSI
* Wood: E=1,000 - 2,000 KSI (usual range)
* Concrete E=2,500 - 5,000 KSI (usual range)

It is often necessary to be able to determine the deformation of a structural member once the loads and physical properties of the structural member are known. This is simply derived and is developed from the stress/strain relationships that have already been established.

Countries Having NO trains!!!!!

No railways

• Andorra - planned 2009
• Bahamas - island
• Bahrain - planned 2008
• Belize - planned 2007
• Bhutan - rail link is expected to come up under Nehru Golden Jubilee project
• Burundi - planned 2008
• Cape Verde - island
• Central African Republic
• Chad
• Cyprus - island
• East Timor - island
• Equatorial Guinea
• Guinea-Bissau
• Iceland (see Rail transport in Iceland)
• Kiribati - island
• Kuwait - planned 2008
• Libya (network under construction, see Libyan Railways)
• Maldives - island
• Malta - island
• Mauritius - island
• Micronesia - island
• Niger
• Oman - planned 2008
• Papua New Guinea - planned 2007
• Rwanda - planned - 2008
• Qatar - planned 2008
• San Marino - railways Rimini-San Marino until 1944 link Italy to San Marino
• São Tomé and Príncipe - island
• Seychelles - island
• Somalia - Mogadishu-Villabruzzi Railway existed from 1914 to 1941
• The Gambia
• Trinidad and Tobago - Trinidad Government Railway from 1876 until 1968; Trinidad Rapid Railway now planned
• Tuvalu - island
• Vanuatu - island
• Yemen - planned 2008