Quiz time

1) Which of the following Saint known as "Mahboob-ae-Dilli"

Ans. Nizammuddin Aulia

2) The Coin "Rupia" was first issued by:

Ans. Akbar

3) How many Central universities are there in India?

Ans.17

4)who was the first European to translate the Bhagwat Gita into English?

Ans. Charles Wilkins

5)Tuzuk-i-baburi was a autabiography written by babur in which language

Ans. Turkish

6) Which mughal emperor was also known as Qalandar?

Ans. babur

7) In 2003, Indian Railways Has completed?

Ans. 150 Years.

8)Which Indian Bank has the highest branches abroad?

Ans. SBI

9) The first Premature dissolution at the lok sabha took place in the year?

Ans. 1970

10) Tasleema's Nasreen's Autobiography?

Ans. Dwekhandita

11) The Office of District collector was created by?

Ans. Warren Hastings

12) what is the national sport of Greece?

Ans. Soccer

13) Which indian hockey player has a road named after him in germany?

Ans. Roop singh

14) In which year was men's hockey included in the Olympics?

Ans. 1924

15) Who gave Kapil Dev the nickname "Harayana Hurricane"?

Ans. Guinness Book of World Records.

16) Which cricketer, after his retirement from the game, served as India's High Commissioner in Australia?

Ans. K. S. Duleepsinghji

17) Who was the only cricketer to feature on a currency note of his country?

Ans. Sir Frank Worrell

18) In the history of Indian Cricket what 'first' does Faroukh Engineer have to his credit?

Ans. He was the first Indian to play County cricket ( for Lancashire in 1968)

19) Who was the only player dismissed for duck in the 1983 World Cup cricket final?

Ans. Kirti Azad (India)

20) Who was the first Hindu to play for the Pakistan national cricket team?

Ans. Anil Dalpat (wicket-keeper)

21) Which Australian cricketer, is nicknamed "Herby"?

Ans. Allan Border.

22) Who scored 99, 98 and 97 in three successive Test innings?

Ans. Clem Hill (Australia), 1902,

23) What is the importance of 14 Dec 1960 in Sports?

Ans. For the first time in cricket history a Test match was tied.

24) Who was the first victim of Kapil Dev in One day Internationals?

Ans. Imran Khan of Pakistan (Quetta October 1, 1978 his first match)

25) Who claimed the first wicket in Test cricket?

Ans. Allen Hill of England

26) "She was initially named Jeevan by her father, but later changed the name. By what name is this singer better known now? "

Ans. Norah Jones

27) Which former Miss India created history by deciding not to take part in the Miss Universe competition?

Ans. Nalini Vishwanathan 

28) Which is the youngest and oldest of the new world religions?

Ans. Sikhism  and Hinduism

29) In the 1980 film Kalyug which modern day actress played the role of Rekha's son?

Ans. Urmila Matondkar 

30) Which is the national animal of Nepal?

Ans. Cow 

31) In which Indian state would you find the largest church of Asia?

Ans. Goa 

32) The country Suriname is in which continent?

Ans. South America 

33) Where was the Durand Cup football tournament first played?

Ans. Shimla 

34) JPY is the currency code of which country?

Ans. Japan

35) Who was the captain of India in Sachin Tendulkar's debut Test?

Ans. Krishnamachari Srikkanth 

36) Which planet was discovered by William Herschel in 1781?

Ans. Uranus 

37) Which country is the world's largest producer of wheat?

Ans. China 

38) How do we better know a pugilist?

Ans. Boxer 

39) Who wrote the poem 'Venus and Adonis'?

Ans. William Shakespeare 

40) How is Sampooran Singh better known?

Ans. Gulzar

41) A.S Dilip Kumar is the original name of which famous music director?

Ans. A.R Rahman

42) Which company was founded in 1924 by a former cash register salesman Thomas Watson?

Ans. IBM

43) Which Indian politician wrote 'Flight to Parliament'?

Ans. Rajesh Pilot

44) Who among these was the first to climb Mt. Everest without oxygen?

Ans. Phu Dorjee 

45) "In computers, which term is used to refer to a collection of databases?"

Ans. Databank

46) What type of a creature is a mamba?

Ans. A snake 

47) In which of these lakes are the Honeymoon Island and the Breakfast Island situated?

Ans. Chilka Lake 

48) Which Indian President received the Templeton Prize in 1975?

Ans. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 

49) Which was the first Indian film to be nominated for the Oscar?

Ans. Mother India

50) Holi is celebrated in the month of ________ .

Ans. Phalguna

51) Which city is the headquarters of the SAARC?

Ans. Kathmandu 

52) Which U.S president won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906?

Ans Theodore Roosevelt 

53) Which animal is given or lent to other countries by the Chinese government as a mark of friendship?

Ans.Panda

54) What is the more popular name of the Alsatian breed of dogs?

Ans. German Shepherd 

55) Which is used to refer to data transfer rates in modem?

Ans. Cps

56) On which island were the extinct bird dodo found?

Ans. Mauritius 

57) "Sourav Ganguly, Virender Sehwag, Pravin Amre" what have in common ?

Ans. Century on Test debut 

58) "In the English translation of Rabindranath Tagore's 'Gitanjali', which famous poet wrote the introduction? "

Ans. W.B. Yeats 

59) 'Tarkash' is a collection of Urdu poetry by which famous lyricist?

Ans. Javed Akhtar

60) Which former US president devised the name 'United Nations'?

Ans. Franklin D. Roosevelt 

61) Which Indian won a Grammy award in the 2002 Grammy Awards?

Ans. Pandit Ravi Shankar

62) Aristotle was the teacher of which famous emperor?

Ans. Alexander the Great 

63) "In 1980, the Indian government issued a stamp to honour which hockey legend?"

Ans. Dhyan Chand

64) Which of these actors played a negative role in Steven Spielberg's 'Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'?

Ans. Amrish Puri 

65) Who is the only cricketer to have played Test cricket for both England and India?

Ans. Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi 

66) How is Badruddin Jamaluddin Kazi better known?

Ans Johnny Walker 

67) Which of these games is also called 'Ping-Pong'?

Ans. Table tennis 

68) Who has won the Nobel Prize twice?

Ans. Marie Curie

69) Who played the role of the young Raj Kapoor in the film 'Awara'?

Ans. Shashi Kapoor 

70) Which of these computer languages was developed from an earlier language BCPL?

Ans. C

71) Which country was ruled by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk?

Ans. Turkey 

72) By what name is the software program Multiplan now known?

Ans. MS Excel 

73) By what name is actor R.K. Tuli better known?

Ans. Rajendra Kumar

74) "In 1640, which city was founded by Francis Day ?"

Ans. Madras

75) "In computers, what is the full form of OMR?"

Ans. Optical Mark Reading

76)  Which famous director is the nephew of Dev Anand?

Ans. Shekhar Kapur

77) "In computers, which of these terms is used to refer to a temporary memory for data?"

Ans. Buffer

78) Who used the screen name 'Baby Rani' as a child actress?

Ans. Nargis

79) Who was the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate ?

Ans. Ibrahim Lodi

80) Who was the first Asian to swim across the English Channel?

Ans. Mihir Sen 

81) Who was the first Indian to participate in the Wimbledon tennis tournament?

Ans. Sardar Nihal Singh 

82) Which is the most used metal in the world?

Ans. Iron 

83) Who was the first Roman Catholic president of USA?

Ans. John F. Kennedy 

84) Name the first artificial satellite launched by man.

Ans. Sputnik 1

85) "In Germany, who among these was known as Kaiser?"

ans. Emperor 

86)  Which of these cities is both in Europe and Asia?

Istanbul 

87) Which is the longest river in Asia?

Yangtze

88) Which  Indian actresses acted in the film 'City of Joy'?

ans. Shabana Azmi 

89) Which game was once known as battledore?

Ans. Badminton

90) In which continent is the Gibson Desert?

Ans. Australia

91) Which is the hardest naturally occurring substance known to man?

Ans. Diamond 

92) What was the name of the first personal computer?

Ans. Altair

93) Which planet was discovered by the American astronomer Clyde W.Tombaugh?

Ans. Pluto  

94) "Which of these elements was discovered by Pierre Curie, Marie Curie and G. Bemont?"

ans. Radium

95) What do we call a device for connecting computer network that has the facilities of both a bridge and a router?

Ans. Brouter 

96) After which Prime Minister was Connaught Place renamed?

Ans. Rajiv Gandhi

97) Which hill station of India became an autonomous state in 1970?

Ans. Meghalaya

98) Which city became the capital of Punjab immediately after Independence?

Ans. Shimla

99) Who was given the title of 'Kavi Priya' by Akbar?

Ans. Birbal

100) Which term is used to describe a computer having the characteristics of both digital and analog computers?

Ans. Hybrid computer 

Crossword time

Famous 10 Theme Parks in India

Adventure Parks or Theme Parks are one of the life lines of Big Cities of India. Being one of the best weekend family entertainers these welcome people with a variety of rides, water park, shopping mall and various food courts. With imported rides and fun, these Theme Parks make a important part of Indian Middle Class. Read about these magical Islands ...

Located in Cochin, its one of the best Theme Parks of South India. Read more.... Veegaland Park	Just near the Gandipet Lake, it has all the latest rides to ride on. See for yourself... Ocean Park
The biggest Film City in India with real sets and real shooting. Know more.... Ramoji Film City	The weekend destination, its has the good rides and water park. Know more... Fun n Food Village
The first and biggest with latest rides and water park, its a must go for place... Essel World	Rides supplied by European manufacturers, it has the best rides in Delhi ... Adventure Islands
Considered the Disney Land of India, its a must go for place... Entertainment City	The only Theme Park of Kolkatta, its has pretty good rides. Worth a visit.... Nicco Park
With Prez Abdul Kalam visiting it, it has a number of Scientific nicks with entertainment... Gujarat Science City	A good weekcaves/end destination as it has the theme park and resort in combination. Read on... Platinum Resorts

Tourism Ministry is developing Theme Parks such as Garden of Palms, Garden of Conifers, Valley of Animals etc. in Chandigarh.

Continuing with the efforts for promoting green Chandigarh, Ministry of tourism is also supporting Setting up of Theme Parks like Garden of Palms, Garden of Conifers, etc. In the month of March 2010, Ministry of Tourism has sanctioned Rs.4.51 crore which includes Rs. 3.11 crore  for Development of Garden of Palms, Rs. 1.40 crore for Garden - Valley of Animals.  Rs.1.76 crore for Development of Garden of Conifers in Chandigarh have also been sanctioned. 

The foundation stones of Garden of Palms (Sector-42) and Garden of Conifers (Sector -52) would be laid by the Hon’ble Minister for Tourism today i.e. 17.05.2010.

            Ministry of Tourism has sanctioned a unique project for promotion of night tourism. A world class illumination technology will be employed for projecting the unique architecture of the monuments and buildings of Chandigarh. Night tourism will include conducted tours to the buildings on eco friendly buses, food fairs and selected stoppages at chosen points etc will be packaged into the tour to make the ride an experience in itself. An amount of Rs. 4.98 crores has been earmarked for this venture.

            The Chandigarh College of Architecture, which is one of the premier institutions in the country, is on the panel of expert consultants of the Ministry of Tourism. Ministry of Tourism takes pride in having such a reputed institute among its knowledge bank.

In addition, Convention Centre for Chandigarh, Development of Garden of Spring and Development of Japanese Garden projects are under consideration for Central financial assistance to Chandigarh in the year 2010-11.

Ministry of Tourism has also been supporting the Rose Festival, Chandigarh Carnival, and New Year Celebrations etc which will continue to receive support.

            Coupled with the scenic beauty of foothills, greenery, view of majestic mountains, unique monuments, Rock Garden, and several gardens being proposed now, the city, Chandigarh would emerge to be a choice destination in the region.

Bharat Stage norms

The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which became effective in 1989. These idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass emission limits for both petrol (1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles, which were gradually tightened during the 1990’s. Since the year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for heavy-dc. Indian own emission regulations still apply to two- and three-wheeled vehicles.
Current requirement is that all transport vehicles carry a fitness certificate that is renewed each year after the first two years of new vehicle registration.
On October 6, 2003, the National Auto Fuel Policy has been announced, which envisages a phased program for introducing Euro 2 - 4 emission and fuel regulations by 2010.

 

Comparison between Bharat Stage and Euro norms

The Bharat Stage norms have been styled to suit specific needs and demands of Indian conditions. The differences lie essentially in environmental and geographical needs, even though the emission standards are exactly the same.
For instance, Euro-III is tested at sub-zero temperatures in European countries. In India, where the average annual temperature ranges between 24 and 28 degree Celsius, the test is done away with.
Another major distinction is in the maximum speed at which the vehicle is tested. A speed of 90 kmph is stipulated for BS-III, whereas it is 120 kmph for Euro-III, keeping emission limits the same in both cases.
In addition to limits, test procedure has certain finer points too. For instance, the mass emission test measurements done in g/km on a chassis dynamometer requires a loading of 100 kg weight in addition to unloaded car weight in Europe. In India, BS-III norms require an extra loading of 150 kg weight to achieve the desired inertia weight mainly due to road conditions here


 

OVERVIEW OF THE EMISSION NORMS IN INDIA

• 1991 - Idle CO Limits for Gasoline Vehicles and Free Acceleration Smoke for Diesel Vehicles, Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline Vehicles.
  
  
• 1992 - Mass Emission Norms for Diesel Vehicles.
  
  
• 1996 - Revision of Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline and Diesel Vehicles, mandatory fitment of Catalytic Converter for Cars in Metros on Unleaded Gasoline.
  
  
• 1998 - Cold Start Norms Introduced.
  
  
• 2000 - India 2000 (Eq. to Euro I) Norms, Modified IDC (Indian Driving Cycle), Bharat Stage II Norms for Delhi.
  
  
• 2001 - Bharat Stage II (Eq. to Euro II) Norms for All Metros, Emission Norms for CNG & LPG Vehicles.
  
  
• 2003 - Bharat Stage II (Eq. to Euro II) Norms for 11 major cities.
  
  
• 2005 - From 1st April Bharat Stage III (Eq. to Euro III) Norms for 11 major cities.
  
  
• 2010 - Bharat Stage III Emission Norms for 4-wheelers for entire country whereas Bharat Stage - IV (Eq. to Euro IV) for 11 major cities. 

   

   

  Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)
  

  Standard	Reference	Date	Region
  India 2000	Euro 1	2000	Nationwide
  Bharat Stage II	Euro 2	2001	NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
  		2003.04	NCR*, 10 Cities †
  		2005.04	Nationwide
  Bharat Stage III	Euro 3	2005.04	NCR*, 10 Cities †
  		2010.04	Nationwide
  Bharat Stage IV	Euro 4	2010.04	NCR*, 10 Cities †
  * National Capital Region (Delhi) † Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra

   

 Current news-----
The earlier deadline was April 1, and is now extended to July 1 to convert their models to Bharat Stage 3 for sale in 13 cities, including Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. For sale in the rest of the country, auto makers would now have time until October 1 to switch their two-wheelers to BS 3. The move has given some relief to Hero Honda, which sells more than one million Splendors (Splendour is on BS 2) in a year, constituting 25 per cent of the company`s total annual sales. The brand also accounts for 13 per cent of the total domestic sales of motorcycles.

Dose (First Indian Woman)

First in India (Female)

India’s first woman president	Smt. Pratibha Patil
India’s first woman Prime Minister	Smt. Indira Gandhi
India’s first woman governor	Sarojini Naidu
India’s first woman ruler (On Delhi’s throne)	Razia Sultan
India’s first woman I.P.S. Officer	Kiran Bedi
First woman Chief Minister of a state	Sucheta Kripalani(U.P)
First woman Union Minister	Rajkumari Amrita Kaur
First woman president of INC	Annie Besant
First woman Judge of the Suprime Court	Meera Sahib Fatima Bibi
First woman to get Ashok Chakra	Nirja Mishra
First Indian woman Ambassador at United Nations	Vijayalakshmi Pandit
First Indian woman to swim across the English Channel	Miss Arati Saha (now Mrs. Arati Gupta)
First Indian woman to get the Nobel Prize	Mother Teresa (1979)
First Indian woman to climb the Mt. Everest	Bachendri Pal
First Indian woman to become ‘Miss World’	Miss Reita Faria
First Indian woman to get Bharat Ratna	Smt. Indira Gandhi
First woman to get Jnanpith Award	Ashapurna Devi
First Indian woman to win WTA Title	Sania Mirza
First Indian woman Airline Pilot	Durga Banerjee
First Indian woman to win a Gold Medal in Asian Games	Kamaljeet Sandhu
First Indian woman president of Indian National Congress	Sarojini Naidu (1925)
First Indian woman to win the Booker Prize	Arundhati Roy
First woman Musician to get ‘Bharat Ratna’	M.S. Subbulakshmi
First Indian woman to go into space	Kalpana Chawla
First Indian Woman to Climb the ‘Mt. Everest’ twice	Santosh Yadav
First Indian woman to become ‘Miss Universe’	Sushmita Sen

Miscellaneous Dose

India has the largest population of the blind in the world.
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Measles is an infection caused by Rubella virus in children, is extremely contagious and found throughout the world. Vaccination has interestingly reduced the epidemics as compared to earlier times. Measles is typically characterized by fever, cold, cough and a skin rash that starts days before the onset of the disease.

Types of Measles

Rubeola virus which causes “red measles” and may lead to pneumonia or encephalitis.

Rubella virus which causes “German measles” or “three-day measles” is milder in form but can causes birth defects in the baby if the infected mother passes the virus on to the fetus.

Pain killers like acetaminophen and Ibuprofen to ease pain with doctor’s consultation.

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Sr. No.	Name of Wetlands	State/UT	Sr. No.	Name of Wetlands	State/UT
1	Wullar	Jammu and Kashmir	35	Rasik Beel	W. Bengal
2	Tso Morari	Jammu and Kashmir	36	Nawabganj	Uttar Pradesh
3	Tisgul Tso	Jammu and Kashmir	37	Sandi	Uttar Pradesh
4	Renuka	Himachal Pradesh	38	Lakh Bahoshi	Uttar Pradesh
5	Pong Dam	Himachal Pradesh	39	Samaspur	Uttar Pradesh
6	Chandratal	Himachal Pradesh	40	Sultanpur	Haryana
7	Harike	Punjab	41	Bhindawas	Haryana
8	Ropar	Punjab	42	Magadhi	Karnataka
9	Kanjli	Punjab	43	Gudavi Bird Sanctuary	Karnataka
10	Chilka	Orissa	44	Bonal	Karnataka
11	Kabar	Bihar	45	Hidkal and Ghataprabha	Karnataka
12	Sambhar	Rajasthan	46	Kaliveli	Tamilnadu
13	Kolleru	Andhra Pradesh	47	Pallikarni	Tamilnadu
14	Loktak	Manipur	48	Great Rann of Kachh	Gujarat
15	Ashtamudi	Kerala	49	Thol Bird Sanctuary	Gujarat
16	Sasthamkotta	Kerala	50	Khijadiya Bird Sanctuary	Gujarat
17	Ujni	Maharashtra	51	Little Rann of Kachh	Gujarat
18	Nalsarovar	Gujarat	52	Pariej	Gujarat
19	Deepar Beel	Assam	53	Wadhwana	Gujarat
20	Rudrasagar	tripura	54	Nanikakrad	Gujarat
21	Hokersar	Jammu and Kashmir	55	Barna	Madhya Pradesh
22	Mansar-Surinsar	Jammu and Kashmir	56	Yashwant Sagar	Madhya Pradesh
23	Pangong Tsar	J and K (Ladakh)	57	Wetland of Ken River	Madhya Pradesh
24	East Calcutta	West Bengal	58	National Chambal Sanctuary	Madhya Pradesh
25	Sunderbans	West Bengal	59	Ghatigaon	Madhya Pradesh
26	Point Calimer	Tamil Nadu	60	Ratapani	Madhya Pradesh
27	Kottuli	Kerala	61	Denwa Tawa wetland	Madhya Pradesh
28	Palak	Mizoram	62	Kanha Tiger Reserve	Madhya Pradesh
29	Tamdil	Mizoram	63	Pench Tiger Reserve	Madhya Pradesh
30	Barilla	Bihar	64	Sakhyasagar	Madhya Pradesh
31	Kusheshwar Asthan	Bihar	65	Dihaila	Madhya Pradesh
32	Ban Ganga Jhilmil Tal	Uttaranchal	66	Ranjitsagar	Jammu and Kashmir
33	Rewalsar	Himachal Pradesh	67	Govindgarh	Madhya Pradesh
34	Ahiron Beel	W. Bengal	68	Udhwa	Jharkhand

Miscellaneous Dose

WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2009: Implementing smoke-free environments

The report is the second in a series about the extent of the global tobacco epidemic and measures to stop it. It includes the latest global and country figures on the prevalence of tobacco use and on the measures' impacts.

The report's theme is "smoke-free environments". WHO chose the theme because of the serious harmful effects of second-hand smoke, which include about 600,000 premature deaths per year, numerous crippling illnesses and economic losses in the tens of billions of dollars.

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Amelie Mauresmo: Out Lesbian Tennis Player:

Amelie Mauresmo came out at the Australian Open in January 1999 at age 19. After a very successful Australian Open, beating top-ranked Lindsay Davenport, Mauresmo lept into the arms of her then girlfriend and announced that her success had to do with finding love and coming to terms with her sexuality.

Amelie Mauresmo: Star Tennis Player:

Regardless of her sexual orientation, Amelie Mauresmo has proven herself on the tennis court. She reached a #1 ranking in 2004. She's twice been a semi finalist at Wimbledon. She has 17 career titles and has reached the semi or quarter finals at the US Open four times. In 2006 Amelie Mauresmo won Wimbledon.

In 2009, Amelie Mauresmo announced that she is retiring from the sport at age 30.

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Human Rights Day

10 December

---

The promotion and protection of human rights has been a major preoccupation for the United Nations since 1945, when the Organization's founding nations resolved that the horrors of The Second World War should never be allowed to recur.
Respect for human rights and human dignity "is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world", the General Assembly declared three years later in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In 1950, all States and interested organizations were invited by the General Assembly to observe 10 December as Human Rights Day (resolution 423(V)).

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Bhopal Gas Tragedy - 1984

Hundreds of people have died from the effects of toxic gases(MIC - Methyl Iso Cyanate which leaked from a chemical factory near the central Indian city of Bhopal. The accident happened in the early hours of December 3rd at the American-owned Union Carbide Pesticide Plant three miles (4.8 km) from Bhopal.

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Aryabhatta Satellite

(First Indian Experimental Satellite) Launch Date : April 19, 1975

Weight : 360 kg

Orbit : 619 x 562 km inclined at 50.7 deg

Lauched by : Soviet Intercosmos rocket.

Objectives : The objectives of this project were to indigenously design and fabricate a space-worthy satellite system and evaluate its perfromance in orbitr.

* to evolve the methodology of conducting a series of complex operations on the satellite in its orbital phasei.

* to set up ground-based receiving, transmitting and tracking systems

and to establish infrastructure for the fabrication of spacecraft systems.

The exercise also provided an opportunity to conduct investigations in the area of spcae sciences. The satellite carried three experiments, one each in X-Ray Astronomy, Solar Physics and Aeronomy.
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Information technology (Computer Awareness)

Concepts of Information Processing

Introduction

People have always needed to count. Earlier they counted with their fingers and probably through scratch markings on trees or bones or on the walls of their caves. People are now able to solve very sophisticated problems, and increasingly so with the aid of computers.

Today we use computers in virtually every environment, even in areas unconnected with number manipulation.

What is Data ?

Data is a collection of facts, figures, statistics which can be processed to produce meaningful information.

What is Processing ?

Processing is the manipulation of the letters, numbers of graphic symbols that constitute data. Data is collected, captured, shifted, rearranged, sorted in sequence, stored, retrieved, formatted and sent to various persons who need the information

Processing includes -
Calculation : addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Comparison : equal to, greater than, less than, zero, positive, negative
Decision-making : branching to a different path depending on a condition
Logic : the sequence or flow of step to be followed to get the desired result

What is Information ?

Information is processed data. It refers to facts, figures or statistics that have meaning. Although data and infomation are technically different they are often used interchangeably.


What is a Computer ?

A computer is often understood to be a device that computes or calculates numbers. It can be defined as an electronic device with the ability to

1. Accept data supplied by the user
2. Input, store and execute instructions
3. Perform mathemtical and logical operations
4. Output results according to user requirements

Functional Components of a Computer

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The hardware of any computer system can be broadly classified into the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the peripherals.

The heart of the computer is called the CPU (Central Processing Unit) or processor. The CPU performs :

Arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
Logical operations: logical comparisons
Input - output operations : accepting data to be processed, generating the output or results of processing
Internal data movements : moving data between various parts of storage
Data manipulation : accepting data, sorting it, processing it, generating the required information

To perform these various operations the CPU has various components

1. Arithemetic-logic unit (ALU)
2. Control Unit (CU)
3. Memory Unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs the actual calculations (add, subtract, divide, multiply) and comparison (greater than, lesser than, equal to, positive, negative, zero).

Control Unit (CU) coordinates the operations of the hardware. It also coordinates the flow and execution of data and instructions that are fed into the memory or main storage via the CPU. The CU functions in a fetch-execute cycle. It fetches the instructions and data from the memory unit, decodes them and sends them to the Arithmetic Logic unit (ALU). The output from the ALU is fetched by the control unit and sent to various parts of the computer.

Memory unit or Main store hold data instructions (that are being interpreted and executed), intermediate results and final results ready for output. The data and instructions are passed from the main store into ALU, or to and from the storage devices under the control of the CU. All instructions or data are stored in the memory unit before being used by the ALU, or the CU. The main store is divided into a number of storage locations. These locations can be accessed by a unique number or address.

Within the CPU are a number of high speed, special purpose memory units called registers. These registers carry out critical functions in the execution of programs. A computer has four basic types of registers:

1. accumulator register (ACC)
2. store operand register (SOR)
3. control register (CR)
4. instruction address register (IAR)

Data Storage Devices

RAM

Typically semiconductor elements are used in primary storage sections or main memory. Semiconductor storage elements are small integrated circuits. The storage cell circuits and the support circuitry needed for reading and writing data are packaged on chips of silicon. Chips that use metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) technology are usually used in the primary storage section. The components are called random access memory (RAM) chips. It is possible to read from and write to any location within RAM by specifying its location or address. New data can be written onto any location, however, while doing so the previous existing data is erased.

RAM chips may be classified as :

1. dynamic
2. static

Dynamic RAM chips - The storage cell circuits contain

a transistor (functions like mechanical on-off light switch) a capacitor used to store an electric charge

Depending on the switching action of the transistor, the capacitor may have no charge (0 bit) or hold a charge.(1 bit). The charge on the capacitor must be periodically refreshed or recharged. I the event of power loss dynamic RAM loses its contents. It is thus called volatile storage.

Static RAM chips - are also volatile storage devices. However, as long as they are supplied with power, they do not require special regenerator circuits to retain the stored data. More transistors and other devices are needed to store a bit in static RAM. These chips are more complicated than dynamic RAMs. Static RAMs are used in specialised applications. Dynamic RAMs are typically used on the primary storage section.

ROM

There are certain essential functions that the computer must perform when it is switched on (e.g. establishing connections within the various components of the computer and its peripherals). These low level or machine level functions are carried out through a series of programs or microprograms. These microprograms are stored on chips. These Read Only Chips (ROM) contain data which can be read randomly when required but cannot be written onto.

Data is hardwired onto these chips at the time of manufacture. They cannot be changed by the user.

While both RAM and ROM are storage devices and can be accessed randomly, they differ in that data can be written onto RAM while ROM does not permit the user to write onto it.

ROM retains the data in it even in the absence of power and is thus non-volatile storage.

PROM

Short for programmable read-only memory, a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever. Unlike RAM, PROMs retain their contents when the computer is turned off.

The difference between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a PROM is manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner. The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM.

EPROM

An EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. Once it is erased, it can be reprogrammed.

EEPROM

EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. EEPROM data cannot be selectively rewritten; the entire chip must be erased and rewritten to update its contents.

While Random Access Memory (RAM) loses its data every time you power down your computer, EEPROM does not require a power source to maintain its data. For this reason EEPROM is commonly used by many BIOS chips to save system settings. They are especially useful in process control equipment, in which a real-time response is necessary, but when the software is being is continuously modified.

EEPROM is slower than RAM, but is perfectly fine for applications such as storing saved BIOS settings. EEPROM would not be chosen for applications with dynamic read/write requirements, as in the case of a digital camera, memory stick, or flash card. For these purposes a newer hybrid form of EEPROM is used called flash memory. Flash memory differs from EEPROM in that its data can be selectively rewritten. It can also be erased and rewritten in entire blocks, rather then one byte at a time. This makes it much faster than EEPROM.

Virtual Memory and Cache Memory

Virtual Memory

The size of the memory unit in the CPU is often inadequate, when large programs need to be stored or large amounts of data need to be processed. To overcome this drawback the technique of virtual memory is used. In this technique, which is implemented by hardware of software or both, the memory of the computer appears to have been increased. The program is divided by the software into pages or segments. Only that portion of the program and data that is being processed is kept in primary storage. Part of backing storage is treated as an extension of the main memory and information that is not required is swapped in and out of main store by the operating system. Thus the size of memory becomes equal to the size of primary storage plus the size of secondary storage begin used. Processing time is thus automatically increased.

Cache Memory

In an instruction cycle, the CPU accesses main memory to fetch the instruction. It also accesses memory one or more times to fetch operands or store results. The rate at which the CPU can execute an instruction is therefore, limited by the speed of main memory. To build main memory with the same technology required for CPU registers, so that memory cycle times are comparable to processor cycle times, is very expensive. As a solution a small, fast memory is provided between the CPU and main memory. This is called cache memory.

Types of Computer Files

The smallest unit of data is the data field. The data field consists of a group of related characters treated as a single entity.

A collection of related data items treated as a single unit is called a record.

Records are grouped to form files.

Types of files

The two broad categories of data files used in an information system are:

1. Master files
2. Transaction file

Master files are perpetual files i.e., apart from the time of their creation they are empty. Further, they maintain information that remains constant over a relatively long period of time. When the information changes the master file may be updated. The normal methods of updating are by adding, deleting or editing records in a file.

Transaction files are files in which data prior to the stage of processinig is recorded. The data in transaction records may be collected automatically or may be initially recorded or source documents and later converted to machine readable format.

A transaction file may be a temporary file, to be retained only as long as it is necessary to alter master file information. After the transaction file is processed it is usually re-initialised and further transactions are then recorded in it.

File Organisation

For organizing records efficiently in a computer file:

1. Data must be organised in a logical manner.
2. The file structure must allow quick access to data.
3. Allow for addition or deletion of data according to requirements.

File organisation may be :

1. Serial
2. Direct access
3. Indexed Sequential

In a serial file each data record is placed in turn the next available storage space. The record keys need not be any particular order, and there may be no relationship between the logical position of an item on the file and its physical position on the device. Records can only be accessed in the order in which they occur on the storage medium.

In sequential file organisation, records are held and accessed in a predetermined sequence of keys. Records can be organised in numerical alphabetical or chronological order.

Magnetic tape is a common medium for storing sequential and serial files. Files however may also be stored on disk, which allows convenient storage and faster access than on magnetic tape. Data however, must be retrieved sequentially.

Types of Processing Systems

There are variety of processing options available today.

1. Batch processing systems
2. On-line systems
3. Real-time systems
4. Distributed systems

Source---Freepedia

What was Watergate?

(1972–75), U.S. political scandal surrounding the revelation of illegal activities on the part of the incumbent Republican administration of President Richard M. Nixon during and after the 1972 presidential election campaign.

The matter was first brought to public attention by the arrest of five men who, on June 17, 1972, broke into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate, an office–apartment–hotel complex in Washington, D.C. Within a few days of their arrest at the Watergate, charges of burglary and wiretapping were brought against the five and against E. Howard Hunt, Jr., a former White House ...

"Watergate" is a general term used to describe a complex web of political scandals between 1972 and 1974.

The word refers to the Watergate Hotel in Washington D.C. In addition to the hotel, the Watergate complex houses many business offices. It was here that the office of the Democratic National Committee was burgled on June 17th, 1972.

The burglary and subsequent cover-up eventually led to moves to impeach President Richard Nixon. Nixon resigned the presidency on 8 August 1974.

"Watergate" is now an all-encompassing term used to refer to:

• political burglary
• bribery
• extortion
• phonetapping
• conspiracy
• obstruction of justice
• destruction of evidence
• tax fraud
• illegal use of government agencies such as the CIA and the FBI
• illegal campaign contributions
• use of public money for private purposes.

Most of all, "Watergate" is synonymous with abuse of power.

Source--
Britannica Encyclopedia

Elasticity

An important property of many structural materials is their ability to regain their original shape after a load is removed. These materials are called elastic.

Steel, glass and rubber are elastic; putty or modeling clay are not elastic. Each of these materials is elastic to varying degrees; steel and glass are both more elastic than rubber. The degree of elasticity, or "stiffness" of a material is called its Modulus of Elasticity (E). Given the modulus of elasticity, possible deformations can be calculated for any material and loading.

All materials are assumed to be elastic except when indicated otherwise in this course.

Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703), a great English scientist, experimented with springs, clocks and watches. During his investigation of the spring he discovered that in elastic materials, stress and strain are proportional. He first presented this in a lecture in 1678 and it is known today simply as Hooke's Law.

Hooke's Law applies as long as the material stress does not pass a certain point known as its proportional limit. This is the point at which the physical properties of the material actually change. Any time an elastic material is loaded between zero and the proportional limit, the stress and strain are directly proportional and if the load is released the material will regain its initial dimensions. If the stress is doubled the strain is doubled; if the stress is tripled the deformation is three times as great, etc.

The English physician and physicist Thomas Young (1773 - 1829) noted that if stress is proportional to strain, then for any given material, stress divided by strain would be a constant. This constant is known today as Young's Modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity.

The Modulus of Elasticity is represented by E = Stress / Strain.

This relationship is found as the slope of the curve of the stress-strain curve from initial loading to the proportional limit. A higher value of the modulus indicates a more brittle material (i.e. glass, ceramics). A very low value represents a ductile material (i.e. rubber).

Modulus of Elasticity

The values of the modulus of elasticity for structural materials have been determined by tests and are readily available in references such as the AISC manual. Some of the more common values are:

* Steel: E=29,000 KSI (sometimes rounded to 30,000 KSI)
* Aluminum: E=10,000 KSI
* Wood: E=1,000 - 2,000 KSI (usual range)
* Concrete E=2,500 - 5,000 KSI (usual range)

It is often necessary to be able to determine the deformation of a structural member once the loads and physical properties of the structural member are known. This is simply derived and is developed from the stress/strain relationships that have already been established.